The R-Spondin (RSPO) family of proteins is conserved among vertebrates and comprises four members, RSPO1, RSPO2, RSPO3 and RSPO4. These proteins have been referred to by a variety of names, including roof plate-specific spondins, hPWTSR (hRSPO3), THS2D (RSPO3), Cristin 1-4, and Futrin 1-4. The RSPOs are small secreted proteins that overall share approximately 40-60% sequence homology and domain organization. All RSPO proteins contain two furin-like cysteine-rich domains at the N-terminus followed by a thrombospondin domain and a basic charged C-terminal tail (Kim et al., 2006, Cell Cycle, 5:23-26).
Studies have shown that RSPO proteins have a role during vertebrate development (Kamata et al., 2004, Biochim. Biophys Acta, 1676:51-62) and in Xenopus myogenesis (Kazanskaya et al., 2004, Dev. Cell, 7:525-534). RSPO1 has also been shown to function as a potent mitogen for gastrointestinal epithelial cells (Kim et al., 2005, Science, 309:1256-1259). RSPO proteins are known to activate β-catenin signaling similar to Wnt signaling, however the relationship between RSPO proteins and Wnt signaling is still being investigated. It has been reported that RSPO proteins possess a positive modulatory activity on Wnt ligands (Nam et al., 2006, JBC 281:13247-57). This study also reported that RSPO proteins could function as Frizzled8 and LRP6 receptor ligands and induce β-catenin signaling (Nam et al., 2006, JBC 281:13247-57). Recent studies have identified an interaction between RSPO proteins and LGR (leucine-rich repeat containing, G protein-coupler receptor) proteins, such as LGR5 (U.S. Patent Publication Nos. 2009/0074782 and 2009/0191205), and these data present an alternative pathway for the activation of β-catenin signaling.
The Wnt signaling pathway has been identified as a potential target for cancer therapy. The Wnt signaling pathway is one of several critical regulators of embryonic pattern formation, post-embryonic tissue maintenance, and stem cell biology. More specifically, Wnt signaling plays an important role in the generation of cell polarity and cell fate specification including self-renewal by stem cell populations. Unregulated activation of the Wnt pathway is associated with numerous human cancers where it is believed the activation can alter the developmental fate of cells. The activation of the Wnt pathway may maintain tumor cells in an undifferentiated state and/or lead to uncontrolled proliferation. Thus carcinogenesis can proceed by overtaking homeostatic mechanisms which control normal development and tissue repair (reviewed in Reya & Clevers, 2005, Nature, 434:843-50; Beachy et al., 2004, Nature, 432:324-31).
The Wnt signaling pathway was first elucidated in the Drosophila developmental mutant wingless (wg) and from the murine proto-oncogene int-1, now Wnt1 (Nusse & Varmus, 1982, Cell, 31:99-109; Van Ooyen & Nusse, 1984, Cell, 39:233-40; Cabrera et al., 1987, Cell, 50:659-63; Rijsewijk et al., 1987, Cell, 50:649-57). Wnt genes encode secreted lipid-modified glycoproteins of which 19 have been identified in mammals. These secreted ligands activate a receptor complex consisting of a Frizzled (FZD) receptor family member and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor-related protein 5 or 6 (LRP5/6). The FZD receptors are seven transmembrane domain proteins of the G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily and contain a large extracellular N-terminal ligand binding domain with 10 conserved cysteines, known as a cysteine-rich domain (CRD) or Fri domain. There are ten human FZD receptors, FZD1, FZD2, FZD3, FZD4, FZD5, FZD6, FZD7, FZD8, FZD9, and FZD10. Different FZD CRDs have different binding affinities for specific Wnt proteins (Wu & Nusse, 2002, J. Biol. Chem., 277:41762-9), and FZD receptors have been grouped into those that activate the canonical β-catenin pathway and those that activate non-canonical pathways (Miller et al., 1999, Oncogene, 18:7860-72).
A role for Wnt signaling in cancer was first uncovered with the identification of Wnt1 (originally int1) as an oncogene in mammary tumors transformed by the nearby insertion of a murine virus (Nusse & Varmus, 1982, Cell, 31:99-109). Additional evidence for the role of Wnt signaling in breast cancer has since accumulated. For instance, transgenic over-expression of β-catenin in the mammary glands results in hyperplasias and adenocarcinomas (Imbert et al., 2001, J. Cell Biol., 153:555-68; Michaelson & Leder, 2001, Oncogene, 20:5093-9) whereas loss of Wnt signaling disrupts normal mammary gland development (Tepera et al., 2003, J. Cell Sci., 116:1137-49; Hatsell et al., 2003, J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia, 8:145-58). In human breast cancer, β-catenin accumulation implicates activated Wnt signaling in over 50% of carcinomas, and though specific mutations have not been identified, up-regulation of Frizzled receptor expression has been observed (Brennan & Brown, 2004, J. Mammary Gland Biol. Neoplasia, 9:119-31; Malovanovic et al., 2004, Int. J. Oncol., 25:1337-42).
Activation of the Wnt pathway is also associated with colorectal cancer. Approximately 5-10% of all colorectal cancers are hereditary with one of the main forms being familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP), an autosomal dominant disease in which about 80% of affected individuals contain a germline mutation in the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) gene. Mutations have also been identified in other Wnt pathway components including Axin and β-catenin. Individual adenomas are clonal outgrowths of epithelial cells containing a second inactivated allele, and the large number of FAP adenomas inevitably results in the development of adenocarcinomas through additional mutations in oncogenes and/or tumor suppressor genes. Furthermore, activation of the Wnt signaling pathway, including loss-of-function mutations in APC and stabilizing mutations in β-catenin, can induce hyperplastic development and tumor growth in mouse models (Oshima et al., 1997, Cancer Res., 57:1644-9; Harada et al., 1999, EMBO 18:5931-42).
Similar to breast cancer and colon cancer, melanoma often has constitutive activation of the Wnt pathway, as indicated by the nuclear accumulation of β-catenin. Activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway in some melanoma tumors and cell lines is due to modifications in pathway components, such as APC, ICAT, LEF1 and β-catenin (see e.g., Larue et al. 2006, Frontiers Biosci., 11:733-742). However, there are conflicting reports in the literature as to the exact role of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in melanoma. For example, one study found that elevated levels of nuclear β-catenin correlated with improved survival from melanoma, and that activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling was associated with decreased cell proliferation (Chien et al., 2009, PNAS, 106:1193-1198).
The focus of cancer drug research is shifting toward targeted therapies aimed at genes, proteins, and pathways involved in human cancer. There is a need for new agents targeting signaling pathways and new combinations of agents that target multiple pathways that could provide therapeutic benefit for cancer patients. Thus, biomolecules (e.g., anti-RSPO antibodies) that disrupt β-catenin signaling are a potential source of new therapeutic agents for cancer, as well as other β-catenin-associated diseases.